Electrical and electrochemical activities of heart Essay Example for Free

Electrical and electrochemical activities of heart Essay Heart is the chief organ of body it can be defined as â€Å"The hollow muscular organ its rhythmic retrenchment flows blood all the way throughout the body†. (Heart electrical) Natural pace maker is established in human heart, this pace maker start working from right atria and ventricle it stimulates their muscles. Sinoarterial node SAN is found in between upper portion of the heart, after stimulating right portion of heart it stimulates the left atria and ventricle afterward adrenaline is secreted from nervous system which speed up the spark electrical impulses or in supplementary words regulates the electrical impulses. Normal heart beats are 72 per minute but in case of running, exercising, taking stress high fever heart beats are increased because Nervous system release more adrenaline. Another motivating topic of our article covers is electrocardiogram that is the measurement of heart beats by special electrode on paper or screen. So at this point in this article we will study in detail regulatory activities of heart which factors are involves in regulation of heart beats and keeps heart normal and vigorous, how these factors are generated and how did they achieve their work this is all we are going to study in element to enhance our understandings about facts of science. Electrical and electrochemical activities of heart In human heart natural pace maker is found, the function which naturally has been given to pace maker is to regulate the heart for performing this responsibility it has to go from very different phases. Pace maker is found in the superior right portion of heart that is Right atrium this is the place from where the pace maker gathers the specialized cells termed as â€Å"Sino arterial node â€Å"so these cells are also termed as pace maker. As the heart beats it generates the electrical sparks per minute, the spark which has been generated by specialized cell, the function of these sparks is to stimulate the muscles. First it stimulates the superior chamber of heart it has to wait unless the atria get empty from blood. After stimulating the upper atria it stimulates the ventricles electrically, similarly it affects the left atria and ventricle in this sequence. If we go in depth we will come to know that everything function of body is being controlled by the nervous system, here nervous system is releasing the adrenaline the adrenaline is computable to increase or speed up the sparks per minute, the normal heart beats are 72 per minute but incase of fever, excitement, stress or any mental or physical stress can speedup the rate of heart beats in result breathless condition occur while on the other during resting situation it is decreased . Let us talk about the phases or ladder which takes place in the electrical activity of heart ,As we have talked before it is generated in the sinoatrial node (SAN) which is located in superior Right chamber of heart this is the location from where these electrical impulses propagated to the artrioventricular node ( AVN ) artrioventricular node is seen between the atria and ventricles. After reaching at (AVN) these electrical impulse are send to the into branching tissues right bundle branch is termed as (RBBB) and left bundle branch is termed is as the (LBBB) there are further more division to there Left bundle branches which are known as fascicles first of all electrical impulses are generated in SAN which primary makes the right and left atria to treaty and after couple of seconds it makes right and left ventricle to contract this depolarization takes place continuously in every 2-3 seconds, when SAN is at rest it makes 60-70 signals a minute rate can be speedup by SAN due to exercise or and physical activity which can produce stressed up condition. When SAN fails to work AVN can takes its position but AVN is slow as compare to SAN the reason is that SAN at resting position produces 60-7- signals while AVN at resting position produces 30-40 signals which are very less as compare to SAN’S signals. ( How heart works) this sequence of electrical activities of heart can be noted by electrocardiogram this is the process by which activities can be registered on paper by special electrode use for this process (Heart Electrical Activity). In human body there are many chemicals found every chemical has its own duty assign by nature in regulation of heart there are also few chemicals involved which stimulates the function of heart . Neuroendocrine system helps heart to maintain its regulation this system is linked with the brain and endocrine system this is the system in which neurons and endocrine system work together electrical impulses are given by SAN whereas the endocrine system gives the chemical impulses , Neuroendocrine system is the complex system which work together this is very complicated system , it uses the nerve symbol to and changes the activity of cells as well the diameter of blood vessels it can also effect the heart rate and the rate of contraction. ( Heart Failure) Electrochemical activities of heart stimulate the heart beats heart regulation, they play very important role in life, in the body as everything depends upon the function of hearts because when heart gets electrical stimulation it transport/ pumps the blood to the system another factor which helps in pumping the blood is heart beats which is also generated by stimulation of muscles. standard heart beats are 72 per minute which are created by stimulation of heart muscles but if they are less than harmfl affects are possible to the body the less then normal heart beats could be 35 – 40 heart beats per minute then blood stream to body’s organ reduces which is dangerous (How heart works) It is a firm believe that reduction in I reduces AP polarization which in result reduces the electrochemical diving force similarly amount of SR Ca is also reduces which is necessary for the contraction of hearts muscles if we go in depth we will come to know that Na, I, K also reduces due to some abnormality and it is like a chain system if one thing is affected the entire system will be affected but here we are sescribing only the loss cause by reduction in Ca as Ca is reduced it reduces heart beats and blood transport is reduced if thing is not cover soon it can cause breathless condition as blood carries oxygen and reduction in heart beats reduces blood transport so this is one bad trait for body. Similarly reduction in I causes reduction in polarization this system is interlinked with one an other. It has also been believed that potassium K changes into HF and HF reduces Ca, it has been observed that many late HF patients who doesn’t notice their ailment before gets death because of heart abnormality, DADs, EADs and Refs decreased the amount of Ca in myocytes this reduced amount of Ca in myocytes causes systolic disjunction in Hf. Systolic means when heart contracts it is termed a systolic and when it rest it is termed diastolic so here Reduction of Ca in myocytes reduced the heart contraction it is an another thing if Ca continue leaking it may cause to death. Electrical and electrochemical regulation of heart Conclusion After reading this attention-grabbing topic we can come up with the conclusion that heart is one of the biggest gifts of God given to humans. As nature has assign functions to every part of the body similarly nature has given special function to heart which makes heart extremely important organ it transmit blood to complete body parts. There are few electrical and electrochemical behavior found in heart which helps heart in performing its main function that is creating heart beats carrying impulses. In right atrium of heart sinoatrial node (SAN) is found which also works as pace maker these sinoatrial nodes are special cells found in right atrium they generate the electrical impulses which stimulates the right atrium cell and wait unless it get emptied after now these electrical impulses moves to the atrioventricular node (AVN) now these electrical impulses are send into branching tissues right bundle branch is called (RBBB) and left bundle branch is termed as (LBBB) first it functions in right atrium and ventricle and then in few seconds after performing its task in right part of heart it moves to the left part of the heart and functions in left atrium and then left ventricle this is how electrical impulses carry in heart and makes it empty and refill in couple of seconds. Adrenaline also plays very important role in this process here nervous system plays an important role it secreted adrenaline to it is chemical by nature and it is responsible for speeding up the sparks ( electrical impulses) per minute so in this way heart continue to work by electrically and electrochemically. The methods which has been found by the scientist to record these impulses is ECG electrocardiogram this is recent and helpful technique to check whether the heart is working normally or not in this method heart rhythms are noted on paper or screen by specially assigned electrode. Now a days artificial pace maker is also being made to control abnormalities of heart. Here in this important topic we also read about that what the lack of any element present of excess of any element or chemical can do with our heart. Nature has given quantity to everything increasing from that or decreasing from that spoils the entire system here we also read about the reduction in Ca, Ca is basic need of heart to continue it heart beats here we come to know that reduction in Ca is mainly caused by reduction in things which are supporting it in background, Ca reduction causes great loss to heart that is it decreases contraction rate of heart when the heart start contracting less than it is required entire system of body is effected because heart carries blood to all part of the body if heart starts working slow then blood also starts reduces and in this way all system are being effected that’s what makes one lazy and the major loss cause by this is the heart failure if it is continuously reducing than a time will come when heart will stop working and one meets his death. After reading this prolong article we come up with the conclusion that heart is not only one organ which is supporting all the functions infect heart is being supported by many internal plus many external features such these all things work together in a chain like system if one thing is effected the entire system got effected this chain which consist of Electrical impulses electrochemical impulses , heart , factors affecting heart , environment and many more things are involved this chain system is necessary for healthy life we should take care of our health for out better tomorrow.

Computational Chemistry for Drug Discovery

Computational Chemistry for Drug Discovery Computer Chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computers to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses the results of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into efficient programs, to calculate the structures of molecules and solids. In theoritcal chemistry, chemists, physicist and mathematics develop algorithms and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for chemical reactions. Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specify chemical question. There are two different aspects to computational chemistry. Computational studies can be carried out in order to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis, or to assist in understanding experimental data, such as the position and source of spectroscopic peaks. Computational studies can be used to predict the possibility of so far entirely unknown molecules or to explore reaction mechanisms that are not readily studied by experimental means. Computer-aided drug discovery/design methods have played a major role in the development of therapeutically important small molecules for over 2-3 decades [133]. Over the past couple of decades, many powerful standalone tools for computer-aided drug discovery have been developed [134]. In silico metabolism After adopting combinatorial chemistry and high throughput biological screening in the past couple of decades, the pharmaceutical industry generated a large collection of potent and selective compounds for numerous targets. However, to become an optimal drug, in addition to potency and selectivity, a compound must have appropriate ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excreation), safety and developability characteristics. Relaying solely on potency in the early stage of drug discovery can result in disproportionate attrition after clinical candidate selection contributing to the exorbitant costs of discovering and developing drugs. Only about one in ten of those diligently chosen, highly potent and selective candidates that enter development reach the market often due to inadequate ADME properties. Therefore, it is extremely important to consider the ADME characteristics of compounds earlier in the discovery process to wager bets on compounds that have a greater potential t o survive the development and clinical trail stage of drug development. Increasing the odds of success to one in five (instead of ten) would reduce the total cost of bringing a new therapeutic to the market by 33%. Experimental determination of ADME and pharmacokinetic (PK) characteristics is both expensive and time consuming, and is not practical for large numbers of compounds, especially when the pharmaceutical industry is under severe pressure to cut costs and improve efficiency. The Price tag to support various ongoing discovery projects in pharmaceutical company for synthesis and high throughput measurement of permeability, solubility, metabolic stability and acute toxicity can run into millions of dollars. Therefore, much attention is being focused on the application of in silico screens to reliability predict ADME attributes solely from molecular structure. In silico prediction of ADME properties will not only reduce cost and development cycle times by wisely directing resources to essential experimental testing, but also bring forward their consideration earlier at the lead generation stage when compounds are being synthesized and tested almost exclusively to meet pharmacological target potency levels. At the cost of experimental results indicated above, a mere 10-20 % reduction in high throughput experimental measurement of permeability, solubility, metabolic stability, acute toxicity through the use of in silico screens can lead to significant savings. Further, application of in silico screens offers an ideal ‘fail-early-fail-cheaply’ strategy for drug discovery because their application requires nothing more than inputting the basic structural information of a compoun d into a validation model. Metabolic Stability Measurement in Drug Discovery At most major pharmaceutical companies, metabolic stability assays are conducted at the first investigation into the metabolism of a compound. These in vitro assays generally utilize liver microsomes and/or hepatocytes to furnish important information about the rate and/or metabolism. In vitro metabolic studies are important in optimizing pharmacokinetic properties such as in vivo half life, maximum concentration and systemic exposure, because rapid metabolism is often a key factor contributing to poor exposure. The metabolic stability data is helpful for ranking molecules with respect to their ability to resist metabolism. Though high-throughput automated metabolic stability assay systems have been developed by the major pharmaceutical companies, screening a large number of compounds is still intensive. Thus, in silico prediction of metabolic stability can be used to rationalize experimental testing and have significant resources. Further, these models allow for prediction of metabolic stability for virtual libraries, thus bringing forwarded their consideration earlier to hit-to-lead stage. In silico Models for Metabolism Studies There are several types of in silico tools available for investigations into metabolism. These include knowledge based systems (metabolism databases) rules based or expert systems and quantity structure properties relationship (QSPR) and enzyme structure modeling systems. At its simplest, the partition coefficients, Log P (or its computed equivalent), of a drug in the n-octanol-water system has been shown to loosely correlate with the metabolic stability of a compound. As in silico calculations of Log P values have become readily available, they are being implemented in many of the current metabolism prediction packages. The earliest in silico metabolism tools were the metabolic reaction databases. In principle, these are databases with the published metabolic reactions and structure of parent compounds and their metabolites. Some of these allow creation of corporate metabolic databases as well. In most cases, these databases can be searched for specific biotransformation (by structure and substructure), biotransformation keywords, and by other user-defined fileds. The key advantage of this knowledge based in silico systems is that they include detailed metabolism findings and original references. Prediction of Metabolites The above mentioned knowledge based systems provided the groundwork for the development of rules based in silico predictors of metabolites, also called expert systems. Commercial rules based programs such as METEOR, META and MetabolExpert iteratively interrogate the chemical bonds of a molecule and apply programmed biotransformation rules in a predetermined hierarchy. As one can imagine, without means of terminating the metabolism tree a very large numbers of metabolites will be generated of predicted. Several of these programs allow the user to specify the number of levels of biotransformation or may use a LogP calculation to terminate the biotransformation process. Prediction of Sites of Metabolism The mechanism of oxidation by CYPs is though to be constant across all CUPS. One of the most important steps in the oxidation of drugs (by CYPs) is the ability of the perferyl oxy species (FeO+) to carry out a one-electron oxidation through the abstraction of hydrogen atoms. In silico packages such as Admensa, COMPACT and Metasite calculate the likehood of abstracting a hydrogen atom from all sites on a molecule, and then quantify which sites are most likely to be oxidized. The greatest advantage of these types of predictions is the ability to quantify the most likely major â€Å"hot spots† on the molecule. Prediction of Substrate Binding The ability of a molecule to properly dock on the active site of enzyme plays a major role in accurately determining the site(s) of metabolism on a molecule. Therefore, modeling of the P450 active sites has long been a goal for metabolism prediction. Some of the first attempts to model the active site of metabolizing enzymes used pharmacophore, site directed mutagenesis, and protein homology. Using homology models built from bacterial and mammalian P450s, in silico studies of docking potential substrates into the active site have been performed with mixed success. Now that the crystal structure for human CYP3A4, CYP2C9, CYP2C8 and CYP2A6 are available docking experiment with these models should more reliably predict the sites of metabolism on a molecule that the predictions form the homology models. Prediction of Metabolic Inhibition One of the causes of drug-drug interactions is the inhibition of metabolic pathways. Enzyme inhibition by a drug leads to a decrease in metabolism and intrinsic clearances, and an alteration in pharmacokinetics of a co-administered drug. Any knowledge around the potential of drug-drug interactions is useful for a quantitative assessment of the ability a new molecular entity to inhibit the metabolism of another drug. In silico methods to predict drug-drug interactions are mostly limited to competitive inhibitors because they rely primarily on the binding models in the used as templates with alignment and orientation of core structure in an active site. However, the quality of prediction depends on the structural similarity to the molecules that were used to build the model. Inhibitors of CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 have been predicted using the CoMFA method. For inhibitors of CYP3A4, CYP2C9 and CYP2D6, methods such as CATALYST and GRIND have been used to reduce the bias in the alignment of inhibitors. Prediction of Enzyme Induction The induction of drug metabolizing enzymes is an additional way in which co-administered drugs can affect the clearance and pharmacokinetics of a given drug. Induction or increased expression of the drug metabolizing enzymes leads to an increase in the rate of metabolism and ultimately, to increase intrinsic clearance. Therefore, enzyme induction leads to decreased drug exposure which may results in therapeutic failure. Most often, the induction of enzymes occurs through the activation of nuclear receptors such as the Arylhydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), the Pregnane X receptor (PXR) and the constitutive Androstane Receptor (ACR). The activation of nuclear receptors PXR and CAR are responsible for the induction of several drug metabolizing enzymes including CYP3A, UGT1A1, SULT1A and CYP2C9. On the other hand, induction of CYP1A, SULT1A1 and UGT1A1 has been associated with activation of AhR. Prediction of Metabolic Stability As mentioned above, metabolic stability influences both oral bioavailability and half life of a drug. There is good correlation between in vitro metabolic stability and in vivo clearance. Therefore, the assessment of metabolic stability of compounds is being demanded and earlier in discovery projects. To meet these needs, in silico models are commonly employed. As described above, many different in silico tools focused on studying different aspects of metabolism have been developed. In our experience, the choice of the in silico tool by a user should primarily be guided by the type of information and level of accuracy that is desired. It is imperative that the developers of these in silico tools continually refine and validate them to reliably predict and quantify the metabolic fate of drug in humans. On the other hand, the chemists, biologists and ADME scientist on project teams to evaluate and use the existing in silico tools and to challenge their developers to demand tools that will rationally and efficiently move the discovery projects forward. Metabol Expert Metabol Expert is an ideal program for a quick prediction of the metabolic fate of compound in the drug discovery process during the dispositional research phase. Metabol Expert is a unique tool for initial estimation of the structural formula of metabolites. Metabol Expert is a rule based system with open architecture, in other words, the chemists, metabolism researchers, drug disposition experts and environmental managers can understand, expand, modify or optimize the data on which the metabolic structural estimation relies. Commercialized by Compudrug in 1987, Metabol Expert is composed of a database, a knowledge base and several prediction tools. The basic biotransformation database contains 179 biotransformations, 112 of which are derived from Testa and Jenner, the others are based on frequently occurring metabolic pathways. The transformation knowledge-base is composed of if-then type rules. Each is composed of our components, the structure changed during the transformation, the new substructure formed, a list of substructure at least one of which must be present in the molecule for the biotransformation form occurring. These rules have been derived from the literature by experts and are input into the system by means of graphical tools. The system is open so that new rules can be added or existing ones modified or deleted. There are two types of predictions in Metabol Expert. In the first type, the system tries to match basic transformations automatically. There is a filter so that biotransformation sequences can be arrested after generation of a specified number of metabolites. Basic transformations are classified as phase I or phase II. In the event of a phase II metabolite being generated, the sequences are arrested and the metabolite is not included in the next level. If a transformation results in the generation of two metabolites, then both are passed into the next level. The second type of analysis is an extended prediction model in which metabolites generated from basic transformations is compared to a list of transformations in a learned tree for a given species and the analogues are then listed in order of similarity. The program then attempts to quantify predictions based in the information in the learned tree. MexAlert MexAlert was developed to be an ideal assistant for high-throughput screening. It is advantageous to consider metabolism still before synthesis of the compounds, in order to exclude unwanted metabolic pathways, leading, for example, to first pass effect or to formation of toxic intermediates. MexAlert predicts first pass metabolic pathways by quickly identifying sites on the molecule where Phase II metabolic transformations (in other words, conjugation) may occur. It is rule based system; the rules are selected from among the Phase II transformations in the animal knowledge base, and modified according to in vivo experimental example of first-pass effect pathways. In silico toxicity prediction Attrition during the drug development process is a serious economic problem for the pharmaceutical industry and it is often due to inappropriate ADME/Tox characteristics. IT has been estimated that 20-40% of the drug failure in investigational drug development phases are due to safety issues, not continuing multiple incidents of adverse effects of existing drugs. The early drug discovery process needs to address in parallel not only potency but also pharmacokinetics and toxicological properties. Van de Waterbeemd and his colleagues at Pfizer have called this approach ‘property-based design’, emphasizing the importance of the critical combinations of physical and structural properties that contribute to ‘druglikeness’. Ideally this process should begin early in discovery, using computational models to screen both virtual libraries and available compound collections to identify compounds with the desired properties (good potency, ADME and low toxicity). Often molecular size and lipophilicity have an important effect on all three properties. High biological activity is frequently associated with high LogP, but this may also raise the probability of high toxicity. In the 1990s, drug companies invested heavily in combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening (HTS) as a source of leads for new targets. Most screen actives turned out to be large and/or hydrophobic, clearly contraindicating to the principles of minimal hydrophobicity. The most visible outcome was not even that they were toxic (because most compounds did not advance that far in development), but that they were either insoluble or non-absorbable. This overshadowed any toxicological consideration in the early stages of drug discovery, bringing forward compounds solubility and permeability as the most urgent problems to address. In the late 1990s the concepts of drug-likeness and lead likeness emerged and simple rules were formulated e.g. â€Å"rule of 5† to warn chemists when compounds were well outside the property space normal for orally active drugs. These rules are now widely used in Virtual Screening to remove undesirable compounds from consideration prior to their synthesis or acquisition. In addition to simple property filters toxicological issues should also be considered because otherwise any specific hazardous sub structural effects are ignored. Some of the harshest reactivity effects are identified and removed using predefined alert substructures (e.g., acid halides) (sometimes called â€Å"garbage filters†). The problem is the most of such alert substructures are â€Å"chameleonic† in nature, i.e., they may not necessarily cause toxic effects depending on other functional groups and overall molecular structures (e.g., acid halides). To fix this, all chameleonic† substructures (from â€Å"garbage† filters and beyond) must be supplemented with class specific QSAR’s for different health effects, yielding toxicological expert systems. Such systems can be used in virtual screening along with â€Å"drug –likeness† filters to subdivide compounds into â€Å"safe†, â€Å"hazardous† and â€Å"Questionable†. Promising compounds need further toxicological evaluation, but this cannot be done by predicative methods alone due to multiple knowledge gaps in their training sets and limited numbers of considered toxicological end points. Sometimes further evaluation is done during lead optimization, when chemical structures are covalently modified and tested. At this stage various toxicological predictions are used to prioritize both compounds that are to be tested and in vitro methods can reliably predict drug’s effect on a whole animal system, yet Animal Tests are not usually done until drug development candidates are identified. By this time drug development cost can reach substantial levels, economic risks become considerable. Thus any predictive tools that help to identify adverse effects in animals prior to conducting such testes are highly desirable. If a known toxic pharmacophore is identified and closely related to the pharmacophore required for activity at the therapeutic target then series specific SAR is needed to aid design of molecules with an adequate separation between the therapeutic dose and the dose threshold for the toxic effect. Since it is essential to have an in vitro surrogate that can model the desired in vivo effect on a significant number of compounds. Some of the more important end points for which in vitro surrogates that can model the desired in vivo effect on a significant numbers of compounds. Some of the more important end points for which in vitro surrogates have been used are: QT prolongation in heart due to blockade of the hERG potassium channel, hepatotoxicity due to compounds that produce phospholipidosis and hepatotoxicity due to induction of CYP450 enzymes. To summarize, in drug design toxicity predictions can be useful for three purpose – virtual screeing, prioritization of compounds and in vitro tests, and prediction of health effects in whole animal systems. Although many toxicologists are understandably leave us with no choice but to make the attempt using available animal toxicity database.

Effect of Social Capital on Democracy

Effect of Social Capital on Democracy Critically assess the concept of social capital? What advantages, if any, does it offer the study of democracy? Introduction Since the 2001 general election much academic debate has centred on voter apathy as the lowest turnout, especially among the young, led many to posit a ‘crises in democracy’ (Russell, 2005: 555). Various theories have attempted to explain the problem as either the result of a ‘life-cycle’ argument, whereby ‘the youngest sections of society are always less likely to vote [†¦] but as they age [†¦] own houses and mortgages, and pay taxes they become more concerned with politics and more likely to vote’ (Denver in Russell, 2005: 556) or a ‘generational effect’ whereby there is an overall decline in active citizenship (Park in Russell, 2005: 556). Against this background the work of Robert Putnam appeared to strike a chord. In his influential Bowling Alone: the Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000)[1], and associated articles, Robert Putnam transferred the concept of social capital from sociology into the realm of p olitics, arguing that increasing individualism had resulted in the decline of community ties and political participation (Russell, 2005: 557), undermining good governance. In the first section I provide an outline of social capital as it was originally formulated by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, in the second I detail the concepts move from sociology to political science in the work of Putnam. My contention is that in the process of adapting ‘social capital’, Putnam changes the meaning of the term and thus undermines its usefulness to the study of democracy; that whereas for Bourdieu it was a property held by individuals, in Putnam’s account it is held by collectives. Also, that although Bourdieu believed that social capital was exchangeable with economic capital but not reducible to it, Putnam relies on a distinctly economic understanding of the term. Finally, that Putnam’s use of the term is essentially neo-liberal, whereas for Bourdieu social capital is ultimately about power relations. In the conclusion assess the usefulness of the term to political science and the study of democracy in light of this conceptual drift. Pierre Bourdieu and the Forms of Capital Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002) originally developed his theory of cultural capital as part of an attempt to explain class-based differentials in educational achievement. His theory has five main features, the different forms of capital; cultural, social and economic, and the concepts of the field and habitus. For Bourdieu capital is best defined as accumulated labour and has the potential to reproduce (Bourdieu, 1986: 241): it is this ability of capital to reproduce that leads Bourdieu to conclude that it is part of the structure of society that shapes individual life chances: it is ‘the set of constraints, inscribed in the very reality of that world [†¦] determining the chances of success for practices’ (Bourdieu, 1986: 242). Social Capital, for Bourdieu, refers to the network of ‘connections’ that an individual enjoys which ‘produce and reproduce lasting, useful relationships that can secure material or symbolic profits’ (Bourdieu, 1986: 249 ): the amount of social capital that an individual can draw upon is thus dependant on the number of people in their social network and the amount of capital cultural, economic or social possessed by those so included. Both cultural and social capitals are therefore rooted in, without being determined by, the possession of economic capital: all three interact to hide the way that social hierarchies are reproduced. Finally, the three forms of capital combine to produce a persons habitus, or set of predispositions whilst the field refers to the arena in which a specific habitus is realised. Thus we can see that for Bourdieu not only was the concept of social capital embedded in relations of power (Burkett, 2004: 236), it was also part of a complex theory that sought to explain the social reproduction of inequality. Bourdieus’ theory has been criticized as being essentialist and deterministic; for John Frow (1995) it is essentialist in that Bourdieu posits ‘a single class â€Å"experience† common to the sociologically quite distinct groups [he] includes in the dominant class’ (Frow, 1995: 62): that an individuals’ class position makes them what they are, he ‘reads off’ both working and middle class culture from their class position, resulting in an essentialist reading of the aesthetic (Frow, 1995: 63). Bourdieus’ theory can also be viewed as deterministic, as individuals’ predispositions are posited as being the direct result of their class position, entailing a denial of individual agency. Further, such a class-based analysis can lead one to minimize the effects of other forms of differentiation, such as gender, ethnicity and age. However, Bourdieu’s use of the term ‘capital’ is both metaphoric and materialistic a nd can be viewed as similar to power: although convertible with economic capital, social capital is not reducible to it (Bourdieu, 1986: 243). Also, Bourdieu argued that the social capital possessed by an individual is a result of their ‘investment strategies’ via ‘a continuing series of exchanges in which recognition is endlessly affirmed and reaffirmed’ (Bourdieu, 1986: 250). Finally, Bourdieu argues that social inequalities become part of the very bodies and predispositions of the individual through his concept of habitus (McNay, 1999: 99), not as a ‘principle of determination’ but as a ‘generative structure’ (McNay, 1999: 100): returning autonomy to the individual his theory is able to transcend determinism; it is an open system which allows for social change (McNay, 1999:101). In summary, for Bourdieu social capital is ultimately about the way that power works through society, and is concerned with the life chances of individu als. Further, the wider theory, especially the concept of the habitus, is useful for theorists who seek to explain patterns of behaviour, including community participation and levels of voting. Robert Putnam: Social Capital and Democracy Robert Putnams’ argument may be summarised as being that the decrease in participation in voluntary organisations has undermined the effectiveness of good governance; ‘that successful and healthy democracies and economies are those possessing dense webs of community participation’ (Walters, 2002: 377). In so arguing, Putnam transferred the concept of social capital from sociology into the realm of political science, arguing that increasing individualism, the anonymity of urban living (Russell, 2002: 557), and the negative effects of television (Putnam, 1995: 75; Walters, 2002: 380), have resulted in the decline of community ties and political participation (Russell, 2002: 557) and thus a decline in social capital. Similar debates were found within the British context, as were calls for a revival of participation and stakeholder values (Walters, 2002: 377). Arguing that a range of issues including ‘drugs, crime, unemployment, development, education and politi cal performance’ (Walters, 2002: 379), and the effectiveness of democracy itself (Putnam, 1995: 66) would benefit from a resurgence of voluntary associations, Putnam therefore calls for a reinvigoration of community participation (Walters, 2002: 377) as ‘members of associations are much more likely than non-members to participate in politics, to spend time with neighbours, to express social trust’ (Putnam, 1995: 73). Defining social capital as ‘features of social organisation such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit (Putnam, 1995: 67), Putnam argued that not only has the post-war period witnessed a decline in participation in voluntary associations, but that such membership is now increasingly ‘tertiary’: that ‘the only act of membership consists in writing a check for dues or perhaps occasionally reading a newsletter’ (Ibid. p. 71). Putnam argues that this declining membership, and the increasingly tertiary nature of remaining membership, represents a significant erosion of American social capital (Ibid. p. 73) and, as such, undermines democracy. However, Putnams’ use of the term is markedly different from that of Bourdieu; whereas in Bourdieus’ conception social capital was held by the individual (Walters, 2002: 387), for Putnam social capital is held by collectives (Ibid. p. 379), further, it is difficult to see how there can be a reduction in social capital, rather than a qualitative change in its composition. William Walters (2002) argues that Putnam’s use of the concept differs from Bourdieu’s in another key respect; whereas for Bourdieu social capital, although transferable with economic capital, is not reducible to it (Bourdieu, 1986: 243), Putnam assumes ‘a self-maximising individual for whom associative activity can, under certain circumstances, be an investment’ (Walters, 2002: 379, my emphasis). Rather that discussing the social capital of individuals embedded within relations of power, for Putnam social capital ‘implies a learning mechanism that is more economic that socio-psychological’ (Ibid. p. 387), and as such represents an extension of the economic metaphor in order to convince us that society is ‘self-governing’ (Ibid. p. 391): by using social capital in this way, individuals are made responsible for good governance – now conceived as a ‘horizontal space of multiple communities’ (Ibid. p. 388) – adding the discourse of the ‘civic and uncivic’ to the list of divisions by which normative judgements are naturalised (Ibid. p. 392). Thus for Putnam ‘social capital is simultaneously cause and effect’ (Ibid. p. 380). Further, rather than situating the individual within a web of power relations, Putnam relies on the atomised individual of neo-liberalism (Burkett, 2004: 236). Finally, whilst this author agrees that society benefits when individuals participate in voluntary organisations, Putnam assumes a link between such involvement and an improved performance for democracy, yet this link remains to be clearly, empirically, demonstrated (Freitag, 2006: 124). Such an argument also undermines the role of government in shaping civil society (Walters, 2002: 380) and in shaping social capital (Freitag, 2006:128), and as such can only provide a skewed picture of the link between community participation and the functioning of democracy. In Conclusion In conclusion, we can see that in the process of adapting ‘social capital’ to the realm of political science, Putnam changes the meaning of the term; that whereas for Bourdieu it was a property held by individuals, in Putnam’s account it is held by collectives. Also, that although Bourdieu believed that social capital was exchangeable with economic capital he believed it was not reducible to it, whilst Putnam relies on a distinctly neo-liberal, economic understanding of the term: that whereas for Bourdieu the individual and therefore their social capital resources are ultimately concerned with relations of power, Putnam utilises an atomistic and self-maximising conception of the individual (Walter, 2002: 386) involved in building networks of self-governance (Walters, 2002: 388) and one wonders if such an argument may, in part, justify the ‘rolling back’ of the state. Finally, that the use of the term in political science rests on the assumption of a l ink between membership of voluntary organisations and political participation, but this link remains to be empirically proven. Indeed, Markus Frietag argues that it is political institutions that ‘matter’, that there are in fact three ‘political prerequisites’ for collective social capital: institutional provision for direct democracy, respect for minorities and outsiders as part of consensus building, and a degree of local autonomy (Frietag, 2006: 145). Ben Fine argues that academia has become subject to a ‘social capital fetish’ (in Burkett, 2004: 234); that it’s now weak conceptualisation ‘means that social capital can be virtually anything’ (Burkett, 2004: 238). He is also concerned that, too often, social capital is in fact ‘primarily participation from below imposed from above’ (in Burkett, 2004: 243): perhaps we should be wary that calls for increased social capital are not simply calls for a withdrawal o f state responsibility. Bibliography Bourdieu, Pierre (1986) ‘The forms of Capital’ in Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, London: Greenwood Press, pp. 241-258. Burkett, Paul (2004) ‘Book Review: Social Capital versus Social Theory: Political Economy and Social Science at the Turn of the Millennium’ by Fine, Ben (London: Routledge) in Historical Materialism, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 233-246. Freitag, Markus (2006) ‘Bowling the State Back In: Political Institutions and the Creation of Social Capital’ in European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 45, pp. 123-152. Frow, John (1995) ‘Accounting for Tastes: Some Problems in Bourdieus’ Sociology of Culture’ in Cultural Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 59-73. McNay, L (1999) ‘Gender, habitus and the Field: Pierre Bourdieu and the Limits of Reflexivity’ in Theory, Culture Society, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 95-117. Putnam, Robert (1995) ‘Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital, An Interview with Robert Putnam’ in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 65-78. Russell, Andrew (2005) ‘Political Parties as Vehicles of Political Engagement’, Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 555-569. Walters, William (2002) ‘Social Capital and Political Sociology: Re-imagining Politics?’ Sociology, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 377-397. 1 Footnotes [1] New York, N.Y.: Simon Schuster.

John Dereks Tarzan the Ape Man Essay -- Film Movies

John Derek's Tarzan the Ape Man For the last one hundred years, Tarzan has graced movie screens all around the world. Edgar Rice Burroughs’ creation has caught the eye of entertainment in a major way. While movies of Tarzan have come and gone, a unique 1981 version of Tarzan the Ape Man stuck out. This controversial film uses the book from Jane Porter’s (Bo Derek, who is also the producer) point of view. It is a sexy film, where fantasies are fulfilled and dreams come true. The motion picture primarily focuses on Jane’s take of her relationship with Tarzan (Miles O’Keeffe). This modern version of Burroughs’ Tarzan of the Apes has a distinctively romantic theme throughout. Jane Porter’s role as damsel in distress is shown through her first interaction with Tarzan. A quick dip in the water turns into a battle with an enormous boa constrictor. Fulfilling his role as heroic savage, Tarzan swings into the water from the treetops and wrestles the snake off of Jane. Interesting enough, he does so without his infamous knife. The knife was a symbol of his civilization in Burroughs’ book. Derek takes away this civilization in order to create the perfect primitive savage. A person, particularly a woman, would not see a man thrashing at an animal with blood flying everywhere, as an attractive scene. Since this film is a woman’s fantasy, Derek leaves out the knife for it is an impurity to Tarzan’s appealing role. At the conclusion of the fight with the snake, Tarzan carries Jane into the jungle to safety where Tarzan himself passes out. The first sign of Jane’s infatuation with Tarzan is revealed as she comfo rts him. While Tarzan is unconscious, Jane strokes his body, everywhere. She makes it ... ... Tarzan runs off. In the final epic rescue of Jane, Tarzan attacks the tribe which has abducted her and her father. After killing the tribe’s greatest warrior, Tarzan frees Jane, and runs off with her to the jungle. Jane sees the nighttime as an opportunity to carry out her fantasy with the Great White Ape. They gaze into each other’s eyes and proceed to spend the rest of the night intertwined. Throughout the film, Jane’s fixation with Tarzan is apparent. It takes a contrasting perspective compared to Burroughs’ Tarzan, where Tarzan has the fixation with Jane. Bo Derek transforms the â€Å"innocent Victorian† Jane into a powerful, demanding woman. Initially hearing â€Å"there is much to fear† about Tarzan, Jane decides against common thought. Tarzan’s primitive savagery appeals greatly to Jane. Her passion for the noblest of savages is everlasting.

korean war :: essays research papers

Korea was engaged in a civil war as an attempt to keep North Korea from thrusting its influence on South Korea. Communist Russia and China were strong supporters of the North, and to keep Communism contained the United States sent troops to the South. USA troops spent years fighting and dying for a country some had never heard of. The irony of this war is that no one really paid attention and its memory withered as well as the memory of the men who fought there. You may ask how this could’ve happened or how it all came about, and ,yes, there is an answer it just may be a little difficult to explain. Hence this war was known as the â€Å"forgotten war†. A cry rang out, June 24, 1950, from a small country half way around the world and America listened. Korea’s geographical realties affected the conduct of war at the strategic, the operational, and the tactical level. It’s strategic location made it a collision point for competing interests of major power throughout the world. As far as the actual land mass, Korea is a country no larger than the state of Kansas. All together, North and South Korea covers an area of 85,246 square miles, and only fifteen percent of that can be considered plains – these are mostly in the southern coastal regions. The United States could not allow its interests in East Asia, particularly Japan, to be placed in jeopardy. It was not the nation of Korea but its geographical location that prompted America to intervene in the war. (Sommers, 3-10)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United Nations was greatly concerned with the war in Korea, but it did not have an army to send. Thus, the United States Army made up four fifths of the actual forces sent to Korea. The bulk of the forces sent were placed under the command of General MacArthur from the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the first attempts to drive the North Koreans back was a wise plan devised by MacArthur. He landed his forces from the sea at Inchon and worked his way up the coast. His gamble paid off when his army retook the South Korean capital of Seoul. After this victory the United States questioned whether they should stop at the 38th parallel or go beyond it and try to recapture North Korea. They decided to go on. After the 38th was crossed putting the US and South Korean forces in the North , China

Church Teamwork Essay

Teamwork is work performed by a team towards a common goal. It involves working confidently within a group, contributing your own ideas effectively, and taking a share of the responsibility. Church teamwork: A group of Christian working together as one towards achieving a common goal. It also involves believing in one another’s idea. The Bible gives references to the benefits of sharing responsibilities with others. Biblical teamwork and the sharing of responsibilities can be seen as far back as the creation of Adam and Eve when God said, â€Å"It is not good for the man to be alone; I will make him a helper suitable for him. † (Gen. 2:18) This scripture applies to much more than Adam’s need for a helper or a teammate. From the beginning God intended that man would live, play, and work with help. The Old Testament and the New Testament both support teamwork. The notion of someone being isolated in God’s creative order is not the plan of the Creator. Biblical examples of teamwork Four Friend TeamMark 2 Team sharing in the first churchAct 4 Team leaders in the early Church: Overseer & DeaconsI Tim 3 A boy, five loaves, two fishes and the disciple teamJohn 6 How team function †¢Selection of team leaders (Exodus 18: 15-27). Who is willing to be trained? †¢Placing people in the right place: Begin with a core group †¢Before nominations of leaders are made, there must be vision Habk 2:2 Benefits of team work †¢Team development will facilitate numerical growth. †¢Greater synergy (the use of all gifts) will be experienced †¢More innovation will take place I NEED YOU TO SURVIVE I need you, you need me We’re all a part of God’s body Stand with me, agree with me We’re all a part of God’s body Repeat verse 1 It is His will that every need be supplied You are important to me I need you to survive Repeat verse 2 (Repeat verse 1&2) I pray for you, you pray for me I love you, I need you to survive I won’t harm you with words from my mouth I love you I need you to survive Repeat verse 3 (3x) It is His will that every need be supplied You are important to me I need you to survive Repeat verse 4

Economic Globalization and Civil War Essay

Researchers Katherine Barbieri and Rafael Reuveny attempt through their study on economic globalization and civil war to find the relation, if any, between the effects of globalization and the occurrence of civil wars in developing countries. Their hypothesis is that globalization has positive effects on developing countries, causing them to have more stability and become less likely to erupt in civil war. Using the examples of 74 civil wars spanning the years of 1970-1999, the researchers compared variables of globalization including international trade, foreign direct investment, foreign portfolio investment, and internet use against periods of civil war in corresponding countries. Their results revealed that when the globalization variables, with the exception of internet use, are more important to a country it is less likely to have a civil war. These variables produce an economic stability that makes people less inclined to interrupt the status quo. Their results showed that poor countries with large populations that were less likely to be economically equal in already dire financial straits are far more likely to see internal unrest. While globalization is unlikely to be the root cause of civil war and can help reduce the likelihood it cannot prevent it as there may be deeper forces at work such as cultural or ethnic inequalities that may be exacerbated by globalization.